http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/04/science/gene-altered-pig-project-in-canada-is-halted.html?ref=geneticallymodifiedfood

This is an article from the science section of the New York Times. It talks about a genetic engineering project in Canada at the University of Guelph with pigs. Genetic material from a mouse and an E. coli bacterium were used to help pigs better digest phosphorous so less of it would be present in their manure. Phosphorous can cause algal blooms and other environmental problems, according to the article, thus this gene in pigs would help make the process of raising them for human consumption more earth-friendly. However, the project, which was funded by Ontario Pork, an organization of pig farmers, has been stopped, as genetically altered animals have not been allowed into the food supply.

This relates to Oryx and Crake because in both the article and the book, animals are genetically modified for human use. In the case of the article, the process of raising pigs was made more environmentally friendly. In the novel, they were used to grow human organs. The novel uses this extreme example to highlight the ethical issues of genetically altered animals for human use. As Snowman recalls the pigoon’s lives, he remembers how OrganInc Farms claimed the pigoons were never made into sausage or ham, but in fact, they might have been. He remembers a time when meat was scarce and how at the deli where his dad worked, a lot of meats made from pigs suddenly became abundant. Many of the workers joked the meat was made from pigoons, and this makes Snowman, known as Jimmy at the time, very upset.

In both cases, people are hesitant to eat the pigs because they contain foreign genetic material, yet they are already being so invasive towards the pigs that eating them does not seem like it would be a problem. Atwood points out the irony of this with the extreme example of using pigs to grow multiple human organs, and it is very effective in making readers seriously consider this issue.

Annotated Bibliography

Almond, Brenda. "Commodifying Animals: Ethical Issues In Genetic Engineering Of Animals." Health, Risk & Society 2.1 (2000): 95-105. Academic Search Complete. Web. 8 Apr. 2012.

This article focuses specifically on the ethics of genetic engineering in animals, and adds the new element of philosophy. It goes through three different philosophical ideas: the utilitarian, rights, and virtues approaches. The utilitarian approach is the idea that whatever maximizes welfare is the standard of right and wrong. The problems with this approach are it can be used to either extreme. If a person believes cost-benefit analysis is the best way to maximize welfare, then this person is ignoring the aspect of how the animals are being treated. It can also lead to people doing whatever they believe necessary to animals in order to ensure the well-being of humans.

The rights approach is the idea humans and animals are equal when it comes to basic rights, which is too much for most people. On the other hand, it does advance the idea that humans should be good stewards of animals rather than exploiting them.

The virtues approach is the idea each object and living organism in the universe has a particular function it does well. This can be seen from two view points. On the one hand, one could argue using genetic engineering on animals defeats their essential purpose. Or, one could argue humans are using animals for their essential purpose of serving human needs.

The article also goes on to talk about the unintended consequences genetically-engineered animals can have, such as upsetting the ecological food web and overpopulation if genetically-altered animals are released into the wild.

In Oryx and Crake, both the utilitarian and virtues approaches are taken to extreme levels with OrganInc’s creating the pigoons. In the case of the utilitarian approach, the pigoons are a cost-effective way to achieve maximum welfare for humans. If a person, or even many people, needs organs, the pigoons have an abundant supply of them. Also, the creation of the pigoons fits directly with the idea in the virtues approach that animals have a specific purpose in the universe. In the novel, they specifically exist to give humans organs. Otherwise, they would be of no use.

Hence, when this world is destroyed, leaving Snowman the only survivor,the pigoons are pests rather than beneficial. They were so suited to one function, giving people organs, that once they went into the wild, their numbers went out of control. Thus they are one of many animals Snowman takes care to avoid. What the people in this future did not consider, and something we should consider, is how functional our animals will be in the long term. Thus, we can avoid a similar fate.

West, Chad. "Economics And Ethics In The Genetic Engineering Of Animals." Harvard Journal Of Law & Technology 19.2 (2005): 413-442. Academic Search Complete. Web. 8 Apr. 2012.

This article talks about how animal genetic engineering is a part of life now because of all the revenue different industries make from it. Thus, the best way to use ethics in this issue is to use the principle of free-market environmentalism, which is a new element of this issue this article discusses. Free-market environmentalism is the idea that markets and consumer decisions are the best way to solve environmental problems. For example, pet industries can gauge consumer’s reactions to genetically-enhanced animal products to see if this is something they should keep doing. On a smaller scale, landowners with animals have an incentive to do what is best for their animals if they wish keep making money from them.

The idea of free-market environmentalism is a good one, as it allows both sides to express their views and let the consumer ultimately decide what is right. However, the problem with this is people tend to hear only the extreme views on both sides, such as that of large scale animal processing plants and members of PETA. Both have elements of truth, but it takes a lot of time and effort to discern it. This is not something many people are willing to do, making the voice of the animal processing plant louder. Thus, it is necessary for people to keep doing research on genetic engineering of animals and its effects so people can hear equally from both sides.

In Oryx and Crake, the idea of free-market environmentalism is taken to the extreme side of the animal processing plants. They grow human organs in pigs, which is extremely invasive. The company that grows them, known as OrganInc, uses brochures to stress the “efficacy and comparative health benefits of the pigoon procedure” (23). No one questions this, as they take this supply of extra organs for granted. They do not consider the living conditions of the pigoons, or whether it is ethical for them to use pigs at this extreme an extent for human use. They have advanced so far in science they have forgotten to question the ethics of it.